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A sit-down strike at a Woolworth luncheon counter in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1960
Credit: "Ronald Martin, Robert Patterson, and Mark Martin Stage Sit-Down Strike After Being Refused Service at an F.W. Woolworth Luncheon Counter, Greensboro, N.C." 1960. Courtesy CORBIS. New York World-Telegram & Sun Photograph Collection, The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship, Library of Congress.
A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States of America
1896May 18
In Plessy v. Ferguson the Supreme Court upholds the concept of "separate but equal" public facilities.
1905
In Buffalo, N.Y., the Niagara Movement meetings begin.
1909May 31
The first conference of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is held in New York City with three hundred black and white Americans in attendance.
1910April
The National Urban League (NUL) is founded to assist southern black emigrants to the North.
191521 June
In Guinn v. the United States, the Supreme Court rules against the "Grandfather clauses" used in southern states to deny blacks the right to vote.
191813 July-1 October
More than twenty-five race riots occur across the country, leaving over one hundred people dead. Harlem Renaissance author James Weldon Johnson calls this time the "Red Summer."
19258 May
A. Philip Randolph organizes the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, an influential black labor union.
192727 April
Kings future wife, Coretta Scott, is born in Heiberger, Alabama. Her parents are Obie and Bernice Scott.
192915 January
Michael King (later known as Martin Luther King, Jr.) is born at 501 Auburn Ave. in Atlanta, Georgia. 7 November
Elijah Muhammad becomes the leader of the Nation of Islam.
193530 January
Martin Luther King, Sr., stages a protest against the segregation of elevators at the Fulton County Courthouse. August - September
King, Sr., and the Atlanta branch of the NAACP lead a voter registration drive in anticipation of a local school bond referendum.
193626 February
King, Sr., is chosen to lead the NAACP membership drive in Atlanta.
19398 November
Martin Luther King, Sr., as head of the Atlanta Baptist Ministers Union, leads several hundred black Atlantans on a voter registration march to City Hall.
194020 March
The NAACP creates the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, Inc., which will become the principal legal arm of the civil rights movement.
1941January
Lester B. Granger is named executive director of the National Urban League, a position he will hold until 1961. 1 May
A. Philip Randolph issues a call for one hundred thousand blacks to march on Washington, D.C. to protest employment discrimination in the armed forces and war industry. 25 June
Acting to avert A. Philip Randolphs threatened mass march on Washington, D.C., President Franklin D. Roosevelt issues Executive Order 8802, forbidding racial discrimination in defense industries and in government service and establishing the Presidents Committee on Fair Employment Practices.
1943June
The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) is founded.
1944
17 April
King travels to Dublin, Georgia, to deliver his oration "The Negro and the Constitution." 24 April
The United Negro College Fund (UNCF) is founded.
1946January
The Womens Political Council, an organization for black women and later the initiator of the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955, is founded by Mary Fair Burks after Montgomery, Alabamas League of Women Voters refuses to accept black members. 2 April
The U. S. Supreme Court, in the case ofPrimus King v. State of Georgia, declares the "white primary" to be unconstitutional, thus removing a significant legal barrier to black voting in the state. 3 June
In Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia, the Supreme Court bans segregation in interstate bus travel.
Summer
King quits his job as a laborer at the Atlanta Railway Express Company when a white foreman calls him "nigger." 6 August
The Atlanta Constitution publishes Kings letter to the editor stating that black people "are entitled to the basic rights and opportunities of American citizens."
194712 March
King is elected chair of the membership committee of the Atlanta NAACP Youth Council in a meeting on the Morehouse College campus. 9 April
The Committee on Racial Equality (CORE) and the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) send sixteen black and white "Freedom Riders" through the South to test compliance with the Supreme Courts 3 June 1946 decision in Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia. Throughout the two week "Journey of Reconciliation," twelve arrests are made.
194825 February
King is ordained and appointed assistant pastor at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta. 8 June
King receives his bachelor of arts degree in sociology from Morehouse College. 14 September
King begins his studies at Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania.
195023 February
The Atlanta branch of the NAACP votes to support a lawsuit filed by King, Sr., seeking to win equal pay for black teachers. 5 June
The Supreme Court issues three important anti-segregation decisions. Sweatt v. Painter orders the University of Texas Law School to admit black students because a law school founded for blacks could not be equal to the established and prestigious white law school. McLaurin v. Oklahoma abolishes segregation at school in classrooms, libraries, and cafeterias because "such restrictions impair and inhibit his ability to study, engage in discussions and exchange views, with other students, and, in general, to learn his profession." And Henderson v. United States prohibits dining-car segregation on railroads. 12 June
King, Walter R. McCall, Pearl E. Smith, and Doris Wilson are refused service by Ernest Nichols at Marys Cafe in Maple Shade, New Jersey. Nichols fires a gun into the air when they persist in their request for service. 22 September
Dr. Ralph E. Bunche, Principal Director of the Department of Trusteeship and Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories at the United Nations, is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his mediation of the Palestine conflict.
19516-8 May
King graduates from Crozer with a bachelor of divinity degree, delivering the valedictory address at commencement. 13 September
King begins his graduate studies in systematic theology at Boston University.
1953February
CORE begins sit-ins in Baltimore, Maryland. 19 June
Blacks in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, start a bus boycott protesting discrimination.
195424 January
King delivers a trial sermon, "The Three Dimensions of a Complete Life," at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama. 7 March
By a unanimous vote, Dexter Avenue Baptist Church calls King to its pastorate. 17 May
In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the U.S. Supreme Court declares racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. June
Malcolm X, formerly Malcolm Little, becomes a minister of the Nation of Islams New York Temple No. 7. 1 September
King begins his pastorate at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. 5 September
King delivers his first sermon as pastor of Dexter and presents his "Recommendations to the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church for the Fiscal Year 1954-1955," which are accepted by the congregation.
Timeline of the Movement
1954
Brown vs. Board of Education: U.S. Supreme Court bans segregation in public schools.
1955
Bus boycott launched in Montgomery, Ala., after an African American woman, Rosa Parks, is arrested December 1 for refusing to give up her seat to a white person .
1956
December 21. After more than a year of boycotting the buses and a legal fight, the Montgomery buses desegregate.
1957
Garfield High School becomes first Seattle high school with more than 50 percent nonwhite student body. At previously all-white Central High* in Little Rock, Ark., 1,000 paratroopers are called by President Eisenhower to restore order and escort nine black students.
1960
The sit-in protest movement begins in February at a Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, N.C. and spreads across the nation.
1961
Freedom rides begin from Washington, D.C.: Groups of black and white people ride buses* through the South to challenge segregation. King makes his only visit to Seattle. He visits numerous places, including two morning assemblies at Garfield High School.
1962
Blacks become the majority at Garfield High, 51 percent of the student population - a first for Seattle. The school district average is 5.3 percent. Two killed, many injured in riots as James Meredith* is enrolled as the first black at the University of Mississippi.
1963
Police arrest King and other ministers demonstrating in Birmingham, Ala., then turn fire hoses and police dogs* on the marchers. Medgar Evers, NAACP leader, is murdered June 12 as he enters his home in Jackson, Miss. About 1,300 people march* from the Central Area to downtown Seattle, demanding greater job opportunities for blacks in department stores. The Bon Marche promises 30 new jobs for blacks. About 400 people rally at Seattle City Hall to protest delays in passing an open-housing law. In response, the city forms a 12-member Human Rights Commission but only two blacks are included, prompting a sit-in* at City Hall and Seattle's first civil-rights arrests. 250,000 people attend the March on Washington, D.C.urging support for pending civil-rights legislation. The event was highlighted by King's "I have a dream" speech. The Seattle School District implements a voluntary racial transfer program, mainly aimed at busing black students to mostly white schools. Four girls killed Sept. 15 in bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Ala.
1964
Seattle City Council agrees to put together an open-housing ordinance but insists on putting it on the ballot. Voters defeat it by a 2-to-1 ratio. It will be four more years before an open-housing ordinance becomes law. Three civil-rights workers are murdered in Mississippi. July 2 - President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Out of 955 people employed by the Seattle Fire Department, just two were African American, and only one was Asian --- 0.2 and 0.1 percent of the force, respectively. By the end of 1993, the department was 12.2 percent African American and 5.6 percent Asian.
1965
Malcolm Xis murdered Feb. 21, 1965. Three men are convicted of his murder. August 6. President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The act, which King sought, authorized federal examiners to register qualified voters and suspended devices such as literacy tests that aimed to prevent African Americans from voting. August 11-16: Watts riots leave 34 dead in Los Angeles.
1967
Sam Smith elected Seattle's first black city councilman.
1968
Aaron Dixon becomes first leader of Black Panther Party branch in Seattle. The Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated in Memphis, Tenn., unleashing violence in more than 100 cities. In response to King's death, Seattle residents hurled firebombs, broke windows, and pelted motorists with rocks. Ten thousand people also marched to Seattle Center for a rally in his memory. Rally at Garfield High in support of Dixon, Larry Gossett, and Carl Miller, sentenced to six months in the King County Jail for unlawful assembly in an earlier demonstration. Before the speakers were finished, firebombs and rocks were flying toward cars coming down 23rd Avenue. Sporadic riots in Seattle's Central Area during the summer.
1969
Edwin Pratt, executive director of the Seattle Urban League and a moderate and respected African American leader, is shot to death while standing in the doorway of his home. The murder has never been solved.
1977
Seattle School Board adopts a plan designed to eliminate racial imbalance in schools by fall 1979.
1978
Seattle becomes the largest city in the United States to desegregate its schools without a court order; nearly one-quarter of the school district's students are bused as part of the "Seattle Plan." Two months later, voters pass an anti-busing initiative. It is later ruled unconstitutional. In a blow to efforts to diversify university enrollment, the U.S. Supreme Court outlaws racial quotas in a suit brought by Allan Bakke, a white man who had been turned down by the medical school at University of California, Davis
1989
Douglas Wilder of Virginia becomes the nation's first African American to be elected state governor.
1992
The first racially based riots in years erupt in Los Angeles and other cities after a jury acquits L.A. police officers in the videotaped beating of Rodney King, an African American
Additional Resources
National Civil Rights Museum - Virtual Tour--This tour is made up of exhibits arranged in chronological order. Each exhibit allows you to view a glimpse of a key historical event.
http://www.mecca.org/~crights/cyber.html
Thurgood Marshall (1908 - 1993)--Thurgood Marshall is one of the most well-known figures in the history of civil rights in America and the first Black Supreme Court Justice.
http://www.ai.mit.edu/~isbell/HFh/black/events_and_people/html/001.thurgood_marshall.html
Rosa Parks, The Woman Who Changed a Nation--Rosa Parks was physically tired, but no more than you or I after a long day's work. In fact, under other circumstances, she would have probably given up her seat willingly to a child or elderly person. But this time Parks was tired of the treatment she and other African Americans received every day of their lives, what with the racism, segregation, and Jim Crow laws of the time.
http://www.grandtimes.com/rosa.html
I have a Dream, by Martin Luther King, Jr.--I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.
http://web66.coled.umn.edu/new/MLK/MLK.html
Timeline of the American Civil Rights Movement--This is a very informative site that covers the time period from 1954-1965, and the intense struggles that took place during the early years of the Civil Rights Movement.
http://www.wmich.edu/politics/mlk/
VOICES OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS ERA--On the surface, the 1960's opened with a sense of hope and expectation best exemplified in JFK's Inaugural Address. While this was soon to be shattered for everyone by the Kennedy killing and the continuing war, most of America's blacks were alienated even before these events.
http://www.webcorp.com/civilrights/index.htm
The Awakening of the Negro, by Booker T. Washington--The seven millions of colored people of the South cannot be reached directly by any missionary agency, but they can be reached by sending out among the strong selected young men and women, with the proper training of head, hand, and heart, who will live among these masses and show them how to lift themselves up.
http://www.theatlantic.com/flashbks/blacked/washaw.htm
Twenty Two Days on a Chain Gang - Bayard Rustin introduces this personal account as follows: "In 1947, after repeated reports that the various states were ignoring the Morgan decision, the Fellowship of Reconciliation set out to discover the degree to which such illegal separation patterns were enforced. It was on one of these cases that I was arrested. Finally, after the North Carolina supreme court upheld my thirty-day sentence, I surrendered and spent twenty-two days at Roxboro.
http://www.idsonline.com/sdusa/chain.html
A Negro Schoolmaster in the New South, by W. E. B. Du Bois--I secured the school. I remember the day I rode horseback out to the commissioner's house, with a pleasant young white fellow, who wanted the white school. The road ran down the bed of a stream; the sun laughed and the water jingled, and we rode on. "Come in," said the commissioner,--"come in. Have a seat. Yes, that certificate will do. Stay to dinner. What do you want a month?" Oh, thought I, this is lucky; but even then fell the awful shadow of the Veil, for they ate first, then I--alone.
http://www.theatlantic.com/flashbks/blacked/duschool.htm
The Springfield Race Riot of 1908--Springfield's two prominent claims, one positive and one negative, to national recognition are the home of Abraham Lincoln and the infamous 1908 race riot.
http://library.thinkquest.org/2986/
54th. Mass. Volunteer Infantry, Co. I--History and reenactment unit information of the Afro-American union soldiers of the Civil War period (1863-1865) who fought in South Carolina.
http://www.awod.com/gallery/probono/cwchas/54ma.html
History of African Americans in the Civil War--"Once let the black man get upon his person the brass letters, U.S., let him get an eagle on his button, and a musket on his shoulder and bullets in his pockets, and there is no power on earth which can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship in the United States."--Frederick Douglass
http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/africanh.html
Freedmen's Bureau-- The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, often referred to as the Freedmen's Bureau, was established in the War Department by an act of March 3, 1865. The Bureau supervised all relief and educational activities relating to refugees and freedmen, including issuing rations, clothing and medicine. The Bureau also assumed custody of confiscated lands or property in the former Confederate States, border states, District of Columbia, and Indian Territory.
http://freedmensbureau.com/
Freedom's Road is Long and Hard--Many of us have read the recounted stories of a railroad whose tracks ran the length of the East coast before Amtrak and made local stops from the banks of Africa's shores to the shores of the Carolinas and to Georgia's hills--then across the border into Canada. The tracks were built on faith and conviction.
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/9061/afro/underground.html
The North Star: Tracing the Underground Railroad--In the years before the Civil War, a secret network of people and places, known as the Underground Railroad, helped many slaves escape to freedom. This site serves as a historical resource on the Underground Railroad.
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/9061/afro/underground.html
Influence of Prominent Abolitionists--The abolitionist movement took shape in 1833, when William Lloyd Garrison, Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and others formed the American Anti-Slavery Society in Philadelphia.
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african/influ.html
THE MUSEUM OF SLAVERY IN THE ATLANTIC--The Museum of Slavery in the Atlantic is designed to provide accurate, engaging and provocative information to the public about the history of slavery in the Atlantic. Although slavery has profoundly shaped the history of the Atlantic and the way that humans living around the Atlantic rim today relate to each other (especially with regard to racial differences, racial politics), our schools and our societies have failed us miserably. We know very little about slavery. Indeed, it is often a taboo subject, one which teachers, parents and elders avoid. We hope that the Museum will provide a valuable educational experience and a medium through which we can collectively explore the multitude of issues which surround the history of slavery.
http://www.
A Tribute To Jackie Robinson--April 15th, 1947-April 15th, 1997. In 1947, a black man walked out to first base to play baseball and America was never the same.
http://www.sound.net/~vivian/jackie.html
The Detroit Housewife who Moved a Nation Toward Racial Justice - A brutal attack by police on peaceful marchers in 1965 put a small Alabama town on the map, galvanized the American civil rights movement and created heroes and martyrs whose names live on today. The town was Selma and one of those heroes and martyrs was a Detroit housewife named Viola Liuzzo.
http://www.detnews.com/history/viola/viola.htm
The Saga of Dr. Ossian Sweet - 'I have to die a man or live a coward' - "I have to die a man or live a coward." With these words, a mild-mannered black Detroit physician set in motion forces that would result in a dramatic milestone in America's civil rights movement, extending the notion that a
man's home is his castle to blacks.
http://www.detnews.com/history/sweet/sweet.htm
A "Northern Lynching," 1949: The Trenton Six Case - August 6, 1998 is a notable anniversary in the annals of the American civil rights movement-and a virtually unknown one. On August 6, 1948, after a 55-day trial in Mercer County Court in Trenton, N.J., that was virtually scripted by the prosecution, six black men were found guilty by an all-white jury and sentenced to death for the murder of William Horner, an elderly shopkeeper.
http://salwen.com/trenton6.html
A Conversation with Ruby Bridges Hall - On November 14, 1960, the nation watched as six-year-old Ruby Nell Bridges walked into William Frantz Elementary School and into history. A federal court ordered the New Orleans school system to desegregate, making Bridges the first African American to attend the elementary school.
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/race_relations/jan-june97/bridges_2-18.html
African American Women in the Civil Rights Movement: A bibliography
http://www-lib.usc.edu/~retter/pescador.html
Civil Rights Act of 1964 - An act to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes.
http://webusers.anet-stl.com/~civil/docs-civilrightsact1964.html
Civil Rights Tribune - The purpose of this website/newpaper was to get an indepth learning experience about the civil rights movement. We have written articles of important people and events during the era. Our editorials will draw connections between the movement and other points in American history as well as present day society.
http://members.aol.com/dctyhistry/tribune.html
Greensboro Sit-Ins: Launch of a Civil Rights Movement - Since the Greensboro sit-ins on Feb. 1, 1960, the News & Record has published dozens of stories about what brought the four N.C. A&T freshmen together in an attempt to integrate F.W. Woolworth's lunch counter. But, until now, readers haven't heard the participants tell the stories themselves. Now, you can.
http://www.greensboro.com/sitins/
Little Rock Central High - The 40th Anniversary of One of America's Most Important Civil Rights Events.
http://www.centralhigh57.org/
Mississippi Civil Rights Oral History Bibliography - A bibliography of Oral History Interviews on the Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi.
http://www-dept.usm.edu/~mcrohb/
Nashville Sit-ins 1959 - 1961 - On February 1, 1960, four North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College students captured America's attention when they sat down at Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, and requested service. However, prior to this demonstration and between 1943 and 1960, sit-ins had taken place in Chicago, St. Louis, Baltimore, and at least fifteen cities, including Nashville, Tennessee. The earlier protests did not gain full attention until 1960, when the southern
civil rights movement gained momentum.
http://picard.tnstate.edu/~library/digital/nash.htm
Powerful Days in Black and White - Shocking photographs brought the civil-rights struggle to all America. Relive it now through the eyes of photojournalist Charles Moore.
http://www.kodak.com/US/en/corp/features/moore/mooreIndex.shtml
Roberts v. Boston - In 1848, five-year-old Sarah Roberts was barred from the local primary school simply because she was black. Her father sued the City. The lawsuit was part of an organized effort by the African-American community to end racially segregated schools. A city ordinance passed in 1845 said any child "unlawfully excluded from the public schools" could recover damages (which meant they could sue the city). Little Sarah had been forced to walk past five other schools to reach the "colored" school in Smith Court. Now all Sarah's lawyers had to do was prove that she had been barred from those other schools unlawfully!
http://www.sjchs-history.org/roberts.html
SNCC Fought for change from the bottom up - The Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee began in 1960 as a rather conservative, idealistic movement. Black Americans in 1960 were locked out of the economic and political life which the majority of Americans took for granted. SNCC began with non-violent civil disobedience as their weapon to demand to be served at "whites only" restaurants, bus stations, etc. They wanted to dismantle segregation.
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/009.html
Sweatt v. Painter - In 1946, with the support of the NAACP, Heman Marion Sweatt applied for admission to The University of Texas School of Law. The University registrar rejected his application because Sweatt was an African American and UT was a segregated institution. This archive contains
historical records linked to the Sweatt v. Painter litigation.
http://ccwf.cc.utexas.edu/~russell/seminar/sweatt/sweattindex.html\
The African American Journey: The Modern Civil Rights Movement - This information is taken from World BookT
http://www.worldbook.com/fun/aajourny/html/bh005.html
The Caldwell Journals - A serialized account of personal experiences of journalists of colour covering the civil rights movement in the 1960s.
http://www.maynardije.org/showcase/caldwell_journals/
The Civil Rights Movement 1955-1965 - The Civil Rights Movement was at a peak from 1955-1965. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, guaranteeing basic civil rights for all Americans, regardless of race, after nearly a decade of nonviolent protests and marches, ranging from the 1955-1956 Montgomery bus boycott to the student-led sit-ins of the 1960s to the huge March on Washington in 1963.
http://www.watson.org/~lisa/blackhistory/civilrights-55-65/
The Civil rights Movement on Long Island: A Photo Gallery http://www.lihistory.com/8/hs8civ1.htm
The Civil Rights Movement, A Photographic History, 1954-68 - Exhibited for the first time in the Southern United States, these photographs explore and document the most important social struggle in the history of this country.
http://www.neworleansonline.com/civrights.html
The Forgotten Martyrs of Orangeburg - Few people have heard of the 1968 Orangeburg massacre. One has to search high and low to find information on this event, compared to other civil-rights developments during the 1960s.
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/005.html
The Mississippi Burning Trial - United States vs Cecil Price et al., 1967
http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/price&bowers/price&bowers.htm
The Montgomery Bus Boycott
http://socsci.colorado.edu/~jonesem/montgomery.html
The Montgomery Bus Boycott - In 1955, Montgomery, AL had a municipal law which required black citizens to ride in the back of the city's buses. On December 1st of that year, Mrs. Rosa Parks, a forty-two year old seamstress, boarded a city bus and sat in the first row of seats in the black section of the bus. When some white men got on the bus, the driver, James F. Blake ordered Mrs. Parks to give up her seat and move back. She refused to move, and Blake called the police to have her arrested.
http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/USA/MontBus.html
Three who Gave Their Lives - Remembering the martyrs of Mississippi Freedom Summer, 1964.
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/046.html
Timeline of the Civil Rights Movement
http://library.thinkquest.org/12721/civil.html
We Challenged Jim Crow - The executive committee of the Congress of Racial Equality and the racial-industrial committee of the Fellowship of Reconciliation decided that they should jointly sponsor a "Journey of Reconciliation" through the upper South, in order to determine to how great an extent bus and train companies were recognizing the Morgan decision. They also wished to learn the reaction of bus drivers, passengers, and police to those who nonviolently and persistently challenge Jim Crow in interstate travel.
http://www.idsonline.com/sdusa/jimcrow.html
We Shall Overcome: Historic Places of the Civil Rights Movement - On this itinerary you will learn about the people and places associated with one of the most important chapters in our history.
http://www.idsonline.com/sdusa/jimcrow.html
Buford Posey's Account of Murders
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/046.html
N. Y. Times Report on Files of the Mississippi Sovereignty Commission Relating to Case, Bowers 5th Trial
http://www.zapme.net/net/newstories/9808/980821-9.html
1998 Bowers verdict from New York Times
http://stop-the-hate.org/dahmer.html
1994 Rally at Philadelphia, Mississippi Courthouse
http://www.zmag.org/zmag/articles/sept94martinez.htm
Mississippi and Freedom Summer
http://www.watson.org/~lisa/blackhistory/civilrights-55-65/missippi.html
National Civil Rights Museum interactive tour
http://www.midsouth.rr.com/civilrights/it58.html
LBJ got conflicting input
http://www.lubbockonline.com/news/021697/lbjgot.htm
We Shall Overcome
http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/sitelist1.htm- A. Philip Randolph Pullman Porter Museum- Did you know...A. Philip Randolph first planned a March on Washington in 1941 to protest against governmental hiring practices that excluded African Americans from federal employment and federal contracts?
- AFRICAN LEAGUE- Endeavors an eclectic approach to civil values.
- American Women in the Civil Rights Movement- A course by the Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute featuring six women in the Civil Rights Movement based on the literature of Eloise Greenfield.
- Black Women Under-Credited in Civil Rights Movement- Describes the low recognition given Black women in the Civil Rights Movement while expressing desire for a greater consciousness of their contributions.
- Cesar Chavez--Social Activist- Celebrates Chavez's life, motivational quotations, and positive affirmation.
- Civil Rights: A Status Report- Discusses the relevancy of the movement, and its effect on the population.
- Civil Rights Author Discusses Birmingham, Alabama Revolution- Diane McWhorter, Pulitzer Prize winning author of Carry Me Home, discusses the revoltion that led to the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in an interview with Jerry Jazz Musician.
- Civil Rights Events, Strategies, and Forces- Captures several milestones, personalities, and influences that helped civil rights in America.
- Civil Rights Garden- Photo documentary of the Civil Rights Garden located in Atlantic City, NJ, honoring those who struggled for civil rights.
- Civil Rights Oral History- A bibliography of interviews about the civil rights movement in Mississippi.
- 4CivilRights- Web guide to the history of the civil rights movement and issues in America.
- Click2History - Jim Crow Laws- Cites infamous "Jim Crow" laws against African Americans, with embedded links from national archives
- Greensboro, North Carolina Sit-Ins- The Greensboro News & Record and Public Library chronicle the 1960 sit-in movement with a timeline, photos, and voices of the participants.
- Greensboro Sit Ins: Launch of a Civil Rights Movement- A multimedia site presented by the Depot, the News and Record, and the Greensboro Public Library.
- Harry T. Moore Homesite- Commemorate the lives of two pioneering American black civil rights workers, who were killed when a bomb exploded under their bedroom on Christmas evening, 1951.
- Historic Places in the Civil Rights Movements- The National Parks Services' story of the Civil Rights Movement centered around places listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
- Integration Ole Miss- The Kennedy Presidential Library's account of James Meredith, the African-American student whose attempt to register at the University of Mississippi in 1962 provoked violent confrontation. Site includes timelines, biographical profiles, and primary sources.
- Intellectuals and the Civil Rights Movement- Publisher's comments on Carol Polsgrove's book, Divided Minds: Intellectuals and the Civil Rights Movement.
- Little Rock Central High 40th Anniversary- Background and history of events during the integration of Central High in 1957. Photos, articles, and news releases are published. Museum and visitor's center information is provided.
- Men and Women in Struggle- In memory of the men and women who helped in the struggle to achieve mankind's greatest victories.
- The Montgomery Bus Boycott- Describes the incident which started on December 1, 1955, when Mrs. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat, and move to the back of the bus.
- Photo Tour of the Civil Rights Movement- A sampling of images from the national civil rights movement, and events that happened in the Seattle area.
- A Photographic History of The Civil Rights Movement- Photos and text from The Civil Rights Movement.
- 1956 Tallahassee Bus Boycott- A collection of original source material emphasizing the role of the local newspaper, the Tallahassee Democrat, in covering the events of the boycott and race relations in general.
- Timeline of the American Civil Rights Movement- Ongoing project supported by students at Western Michigan University's Department of Political Science, covering events from 1954 through 1965.
- Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement- Personal testimony and contact information from veterans of the Southern Freedom Movement.
- Viva Cesar E. Chavez!- Contains a biography, chronology, list of achievements, interviews, audio and text of speeches, photos, documents (including quotes), and links.
- Voices of the Civil Rights Era- Speeches by prominent persons of the era, including JFK's Inaugural Address, and speeches by Martin Luther King, and Malcolm X.
- W.E.B. Du Bois, The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919-1963- Randy Sydnor's audio interview of Dr. Daniel Levering Lewis, Du Bois biographer, on the show, Oxford Review.
- Webcorp -- Voices of the Civil Rights Era- Short commentaries and recordings from famous speeches by Martin King, John F. Kennedy, and Malcolm X.
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