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REVIEW OF DATA ON AFRICAN AMERICANS
Revised March 1993 PREFACE
LCDR James G. Foggo, III, USN, assigned to the USS M. G. Vallejo, served as a participant in the Topical Research Intern Program at the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute from March 1, 1993, to March 26, 1993, and conducted the research to update this report. The Institute thanks LCDR Foggo for his contributions to the program.
INTRODUCTION
According to the latest U.S. Bureau of the Census figures, gains have been achieved in the last 20 years in Black educational attainment, school enrollment, home ownership, and income levels of married-couple families (MCF's). Despite these gains, the economic downturn and the slow economy during the late 1970's and early 1980's disproportionately impacted on Blacks. By 1990, census reports indicated
Black unemployment rates at twice the rate of Whites, sharply increased divorce and separation rates, and a rise in family households headed by Black females. As a result, the overall social and economic improvements for Blacks, which were apparent at the beginning of the 1970's, were not as evident during the 1980's.
During the 1970's the presence of Blacks in the Armed Forces had steadily increased, and this increase continued in the 1980's. Correspondingly, Black representation has improved in the senior enlisted and officer grades. The addition of several Black male and female flag officers in the 1980's was capped by the selection of General Colin L. Powell as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in October 1989.
It is important to have an understanding of the history, contributions, current conditions, and issues for Blacks in the United States and in the military service. This paper will explore population, family structure and marriage, education, employment, economics, famous Black contributors and contributions, and military participation of Black Americans.
POPULATION/GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
Between 1970 and 1989, the Black population of the United
States increased by 35.3 percent, from 22.6 million to 30.6
million. Between 1985 and 1989, the Black population grew at
double the rate of the White population, increasing by 6.2
percent versus 3.1 percent for Whites, and 3.9 percent
nationwide. (20:14)
In 1989, Blacks represented approximately 12.4 percent of
the total U.S. population. (20:12)
The median age of all Black persons in the United States in
1989 was 27.7, compared to the median age for White persons,
33.6. (20:12)
In 1995, it is projected that Whites will make up 216.8
million members of the population of the United States and Blacks
33.1 million. By 2010, the number of Whites is projected to rise
to 228.9 million, a 5.5 percent increase, whereas the number
of Blacks is projected to rise to 38.8 million, a 17.2 percent
increase in the same period. (20:15)
In 1989, the proportion of the total Black households residing in the South was 52.8 percent, approximately the same as in 1970, with an average household size of over three persons. The percentage of Blacks in the southern regions of the United States is projected to remain the same through the year 2000. (20:15)
In 1980, approximately 60 percent of the Black population
lived in central cities (e.g. cities like New York, Los Angeles,
Washington, DC, with Black populations greater than 100,000).
This number rose to 69 percent in 1990 census figures, indicating
a Black migration towards the inner cities. (20:32)
EMPLOYMENT
In 1989, approximately 13.5 million Black people were in the civilian labor force. From 1980 through 1989, the number of employed Black persons increased by 2.6 million (28 percent). (20:38)
From 1980 to 1989, the number of unemployed Black laborers remained constant at 1.5 million, but decreased as a percentage of Blacks in the civilian labor force, from 14.3 percent in 1980 to 11.4 percent in 1989. (20:38)
In 1989, the unemployment rate for Blacks (11.4 percent) was more than double that of Whites (4.5 percent). These rates are considerably lower than the highs in 1983 of 21.0 percent unemployment for Blacks and 9.7 percent for Whites. (20:38)
In 1989, although Blacks comprised approximately 10.2
percent of the total civilian work force, they constituted 36.5 percent of all private household cleaners and servants. Conversely, Blacks were less than 4.0 percent of all physicians, lawyers, and engineers; 4.3 percent of college professors; and 5.7 percent of managers and administrators. (20:395)
INCOME
Black married couple families (MCF's) registered a 58.2 percent gain in median income between 1980 and 1989 (from $366/week to $579/week). Despite
this apparent gain, their median income was still significantly lower than
the median income for White MCF's ($438/week in 1980 and $712/week in 1989).
(20:416)
Median income for White families in 1989 was $651/week,
higher than it has been since 1980. (20:416)
In 1970, the median income for Black families was 60.9
percent of the median income for White families. In 1980, the
ratio dropped to a low of 56 percent, but by 1985 it showed an
increase, to 59.5 percent. Unfortunately, the Black median income
has again decreased to 56 percent of White income for 1989.
(20:38)
- In 1989, approximately 9.3 million Blacks (31.3 percent) and
20.7 million Whites (13.0 percent) had incomes below the poverty
level of $12,675 for a family of four (based on cash incomes only
and not including the value of benefits such as food stamps,
medical care, school lunches, etc.). (20:38)
FAMILY
- The proportion of Black MCF's, compared to all Black
households, dropped from 53.3 percent in 1970 to 36.6 percent in
1985, but climbed back to 50.2 percent in 1989. (20:50)
- In 1989, approximately 43.5 percent of all Black families
were maintained by females with no husband present (female house-
hold). This number was an increase from the 1970 figure of 28.3
percent, but down from an all time high of 43.7 percent in 1985.
(20:53)
- The median income for Black female household families was
$192/week in 1980 and $303/week in 1989. (20:416)
- Black children constituted only 15.4 percent of all children
under 18 in 1989, while 31.3 percent of all children (under 18
years old) living with one parent were Black. (20:53)
- In 1989, 54.5 percent of Black children lived with one
parent, and another 7.5 percent lived with neither parent. In
contrast, 18.8 percent of White children lived with one parent
and 1.6 percent with neither. (20:53)
- The divorce ratio (the number of persons who were divorced
per 1000 married persons living with their spouses) for Black
males in 1989 was 222, compared with 107 for White males, and 150
for White females. (20:43)
- The 1989 divorce ratio for Black women was 319. This was a
significant increase from the 1970 figure of 104, but down from a
high of 326 in 1985. (20:43)
- Of the 44.5 million married couples in 1970, Black-White
interracial marriages made up only 0.1 percent. Of the 52.9
million married couples in 1989, Black-White interracial couples
made up 0.4 percent. (20:44)
EDUCATION
- In March 1989, 64.6 percent of all Blacks 25 years and over
had completed four years of high school or more, as compared with
78.4 percent for Whites and 51.0 percent for Hispanics. (20:139)
- The percentage of Blacks with four or more years of college
almost doubled from 4.4 percent in 1970 to 8.4 percent in 1980.
Some of this increase may be attributed to more liberal
government loans via the G. I. Bill for veterans of the Vietnam
War era. Nevertheless, the percentage of Blacks with four year
college educations has stagnated at approximately 11.0 percent
from 1985 to 1989. (20:139)
- As of March 1989, 11.8 percent of Blacks, 25 years of age
and older, were college graduates with four or more years of
college, as compared to 21.8 percent for Whites. For Blacks in
1940 this figure was only 1.3 percent, and in 1970 it was 4.4
percent. (20:139)
- As of 1989, the median number of years of school completed
by Blacks, age 25 through 29, was 12.7. This reflected a
significant increase from the 1950 figure of 8.6, however the
median number of years of school completed for all persons in
this age group did not increase significantly during the period
from 1950 (12.0) to 1985 (12.7). (20:139)
FAMOUS BLACK CONTRIBUTORS AND CONTRIBUTIONS
Black Americans have contributed much toward shaping
America's history, often against considerable odds. Changes in
attitudes and advances in the area of civil rights allowed more
Blacks to reach the forefront of American politics, public
service, the entertainment industry, and national sports in the
late 1980's and early 1990's. For example, L. Douglas Wilder was
elected as the first Black governor of Virginia. In fact he is
the first Black man elected governor of any state in the United
States of America. Likewise, David Dinkins was elected the first
Black Mayor of New York City. Justice Clarence Thomas took the
place of Justice Thurgood Marshall as the only Black member of
the Supreme Court.
Election year 1992 brought a surge of Black politicians to
Washington. Overall, 16 Black members of Congress and one
senator were elected by their multi-racial constituents. This
constitutes a record number of 40 Blacks on Capitol Hill in 1993.
(1:25)
Although 1992 will be remembered as "the year of the woman,"
it was also "the year of the Black woman." In September 1992,
Dr. Mae Jemison became the first Black female astronaut to
successfully complete a space shuttle mission. In November 1992,
Carol Moseley-Braun became the first Black Democrat and the first
Black woman to be elected to the U. S. Senate. President Clinton
named Hazel O'Leary, a Black woman, as Secretary of Energy. For
the first time, a Black woman would hold a cabinet position
outside the field of health, education, welfare or housing.
Additionally, President Clinton invited Maya Angelou, a famous
Black poet, to read a sampling of her work at his inauguration.
Listed here are only a few of the more prominent Black
Americans who have made contributions. To list them all would be
an insurmountable task.
- POLITICS: Edward W. Brooke (U.S. Senator, Massachusetts);
Shirley Chisolm (first Black woman to serve in the U.S. House of
Representatives and to run for President); Barbara C. Jordan
(U.S. Congresswoman, Texas); Jesse Jackson (1984/1988
Presidential candidate); Andrew J. Young, Jr. (first Black
Congressman from the deep South, [Georgia] since 1901); Carl B.
Stokes (first Black mayor of a major American city--Cleveland);
Harold Washington (former mayor of Chicago); Thomas Bradley
(first Black mayor of Los Angeles); Sharon Pratt Kelly (first
Black woman mayor of a major American city--Washington, DC);
L. Douglas Wilder (first Black man elected governor of a state);
David Dinkins (first Black mayor of New York City); Carol
Moseley-Braun (first Black Democrat and first Black woman in the
U. S. Senate); Ron Dellums (congressman from California and first
Black Chairman of the House Armed Services Committee); Ron
Brown (Secretary of Commerce in the Clinton administration, and
former Chairman of the Democratic Party).
- PUBLIC SERVICE:Frederick Douglass (influential Black leader
and abolitionist during the 1800's); Carter G. Woodson (founder
of the Journal of Negro History in 1916); Martin Luther King, Jr.
(civil rights leader, Nobel Peace Prize recipient, 1964); Coretta
Scott King (widow of Martin Luther King, Jr., and renowned civil
rights leader in her own right); Malcolm X (major Black leader of
the 1960's); W.E.B. DuBois (sociologist/ historian); Justice
Thurgood Marshall (first Black on the Supreme Court); Justice
Clarence Thomas (replaced Thurgood Marshall on the Supreme Court
in 1992); Ralph J. Bunche (official at United Nations, Nobel
Peace Prize recipient, 1950); Harriet Tubman (established an
underground railroad to assist in the escape of slaves to free
states and Canada); Robert C. Weaver (first Black Cabinet member
as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development); Patricia Roberts
Harris (Secretary, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services;
Secretary, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development; and
U.S. Ambassador to Luxembourg); Roy Wilkins (executive director,
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People); Mary
McCloud Bethune (educator; civic leader; first Black woman to
head a Federal office as Director, Division of Negro Affairs of
the National Youth Administration, World War II; founder Bethune-
Cookman College); William H. Hastie (first Black Federal judge
and first Black governor of the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1937);
Jane M. Bolin (first Black female judge); Constance Baker Motley
(a Black female attorney who participated in the landmark Brown
vs. Board of Education desegregation case and who later became
the first Black female federal judge); General Colin Powell
(former National Security Advisor and first Black Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff); Barbara Harris (first Black woman bishop
of the Episcopal Church in the Massachusetts diocese-- 1992);
Hazel O'Leary (named Secretary of Energy by President Clinton,
the first Black woman to hold a cabinet position outside the
fields of health, education, welfare and housing); Jesse Brown
(former Vietnam veteran and first Black Secretary of Veteran's
Affairs); Willie Williams (first Black police chief of Los
Angeles).
- SCIENCE: Benjamin Banneker (mathematician, astronomer,
publisher of almanacs, inventor of first clock in the United
States, member of commission which laid plan of Washington, DC);
Edward Bouchet (first Black to receive a Ph.D. degree [physics]
from an American university [Yale, 1876]); George Washington
Carver (agricultural scientist, botanist); Ernest E. Just (cell
physiologist); Charles R. Drew (physician, "father" of blood
plasma and blood banks); Percy L. Julian (soybean chemist);
Theodore K. Lawless (dermatologist); Daniel Hale Williams
(physician, surgeon, performed the first successful heart
operation); Leon Roddy (international authority on spiders).
- ENTERTAINMENT: Sidney Poitier (first Black to win an
Academy Award for best actor); Hattie McDaniel (first Black to
win an Oscar); Bill Cosby (first Black to star in a regular
television series, I Spy); Bill Robinson (dancer); Oprah Winfrey
(actress/talk show moderator); Whoopie Goldberg
(actress/comedienne); Leslie Uggams (actress); Eddie Murphy
(actor/comedian); Arsenio Hall (talk show host); Montel Williams
(talk show host); Denzel Washington (actor); "Spike" Lee
(producer/director); Sammy Davis, Jr. (actor/dancer/singer);
Gregory Hines (actor/dancer); Morgan Freeman (actor); Ossie
Davis (actor, playwright); Ruby Dee (actress/pianist, first Black
actress in major role at the American Shakespeare Festival);
Carole Gist (first Black Miss USA--1990); Kenya Moore (Miss USA-
1993); Ed Bradley (first and only Black co-anchor of the popular
television news magazine 60 Minutes); Bryant Gumbel (co-host of
The Today Show); Richard Pryor (comedian); Bernard Shaw (co-
anchor Cable News Network [CNN]).
- MUSIC:
-- COMPOSERS: W. C. Handy (blues); Scott Joplin, Tom
Turpin (ragtime); Harry Lawrence Freeman (the first Black to
write and produce an opera); Florence B. Price (first Black woman
to win recognition as a composer).
-- MUSICIANS:Joseph Douglass (violin, grandson of
Frederick Douglass); Louis Armstrong (jazz, trumpet); William
"Count" Basie (piano); Charlie Parker (jazz, alto
saxophone/clarinet); Lionel Hampton (vibraphones); Edward Kennedy
"Duke" Ellington (band leader, piano); Thelonius Monk (jazz,
piano); Fats Waller (jazz, piano/organ); Miles Davis (jazz,
trumpet); Dizzy Gillespie (trumpet).
-- VOCALISTS: Leontyne Price (first Black international
diva who paved the way for classical artists Kathleen Battle and
Jessye Norman); Marian Anderson (major concert figure/pioneer
classical artist and first Black singer signed by the
Metropolitan Opera House); Paul Robeson, Adele Addison, Martina
Arroyo (concert artists); Mahalia Jackson (gospel); Ella
Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday (jazz); Charlie Pride (country);
Harry Belafonte (calypso); Nat King Cole, Lena Horne (popular
music in the 40's and 50's); Stevie Wonder, Michael Jackson
(contemporary music); Diana Ross (singer/ entertainer); Whitney
Houston (singer/ entertainer); Lionel Ritchie (singer/song
writer); Aretha Franklin (singer/ entertainer); M.C. Hammer (RAP
musician).
- LITERATURE:
-- WRITERS: James A. Baldwin (Go Tell It On The
Mountain); Alex Haley (Roots); Langston Hughes (Not Without
Laughter); Zora Neale Hurston (autobiography, Dust Tracks on the
Road); Richard Wright (Native Son); Chester Himes (short story
writer, essayist, novelist); Alice Walker (novelist/poet who won
the Pulitzer Prize for literature in 1983 for the book The Color
Purple); Carl Rowan (syndicated columnist); Lorraine Hansbury
(first Black woman to write a Broadway play: "A Raisin in the
Sun"); Toni Morrison (novelist and Princeton professor who won
the Pulitzer Prize for the historical novel Beloved in 1988);
Ralph Ellison (influential Black writer and author of The
Invisible Man, 1952).
-- POETS: Phillis Wheatley (early American poet); Nikki
Giovanni ("Princess of Black Poetry"); Ntozake Shange (chorepoem
author/playwright, For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide
When The Rainbow's Not Enuf); Gwendolyn Brooks (first Black woman
Pulitzer Prize winner for poetry); Maya Angelou (Black poet
famous for her autobiography, I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings);
Margaret Walker Alexander (poet/novelist known for influential
poem: "For My People").
- SPORTS: Alice Coachman (first Black woman to win an
Olympic gold medal for the high jump in 1948); Wilma Rudolph
(first woman to win three gold medals in a single Olympiad in the
100/200 meter dash and 400 meter relay in 1960); Florence
Griffith-Joyner (runner and Olympic Gold Medalist 1988); Jackie
Joyner-Kersee (runner and Olympic Gold Medalist 1992); O. J.
Simpson, Rosey Grier, "Mean" Joe Greene, Bill Willis, Gale
Sayers, Marion Motley, James Brown (football); Walter Payton (NFL
Hall of Famer and all time career leader in rushing yards and
touchdowns); Althea Gibson (first Black female to win U. S.
Tennis Association championship [1957] and the Wimbledon Women's
Singles Title [1957]; Arthur Ashe (first Black man to win Men's
Singles Title at Wimbledon, only Black man to be laid in state in
the Virginia State Capitol after his death from AIDS in 1993);
Lee Elder (golf); Pele (soccer); George Foreman, Joe Louis, Floyd
Patterson, Mike Tyson; Evander Holyfield; Muhammed Ali (boxing);
Charles Dumas (the first athlete to high jump over seven feet);
Jesse Owens (Olympic track star, four gold medals, 1936); Kareem
Abdul-Jabbar, Wilt Chamberlain, Bill Russell, Julius "Dr J"
Erving, Earvin "Magic" Johnson, Michael Jordan, Shaquille O'Neal
(basketball); David Robinson (U. S. Naval Academy graduate and
professional basketball star).
-- BASEBALL: John Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson (first
Black major league baseball player, first Black player elected to
Baseball Hall of Fame); Roy Campanella (Baseball Hall of Fame);
Henry "Hank" Aaron (broke Babe Ruth's home run record, 1974;
holds 18 major league records); Willie Mays (Baseball Hall of
Fame, hit 660 home runs in his 22-year career); Raymond "Hooks"
Dandridge, Josh Gibson (elected to Baseball Hall of Fame from the
Negro League); Frank Robinson (first Black manager of a major
league team); "Bo" Jackson and Dion Sanders (first two Black
athletes to demonstrate excellence in two competitive
sports--football and baseball).
- BUSINESS: Booker T. Washington (educator, slave-born
founder of Tuskegee Institute and the National Negro Business
League); Samuel Fraunces (successful tavern owner, New York City,
1770's); Paul Cuffe (shipper/ merchant, New England, 1790-1810);
James Wormley (hotel proprietor, Washington, DC, 1800's); George
E. Johnson (Ultra-Sheen Hair Products, first Black-owned corpora-
tion listed on a national stock exchange); Leroy Callender
(consulting engineer); John Sengstacke (newspaper publisher);
Henry G. Parks, Jr. (founded sausage company); A. G. Gaston
(Birmingham businessman); H. C. Haynes (barber/inventor of the
razor strop, 1899); Wally Amos (talent agent and president of the
Famous Amos Chocolate Chip Cookie Company); John Harold Johnson
(editor/ publisher, Ebony, Jet, Negro Digest)
- INVENTORS:Garrett Augustus Morgan (gas mask, safety hood,
automatic traffic light, first human hair straightener);
Granville T. Woods (more than 60 patents, many of which were used
by railroads, including a device which powered trains by
electricity rather than steam); Elijah McCoy (self-lubricating
machine, "The Real McCoy").
MILITARY PARTICIPATION
Colonial Period:
- Blacks arrived as slaves in 1619 (Jamestown), 1626 (New
Amsterdam), and 1636 (Salem).
- For the most part Black slaves were not authorized to carry
arms or ammunition.
-- However, in New Amsterdam in 1641 they were armed with
a "tomy hawk and a half pike" to assist in fighting Indians.
-- In Plymouth Colony, Abraham Pearse, a Black man, was
listed on the roles as being capable of bearing arms, and later
in the Massachusetts Colony "all Negroes and Indians from sixteen
to sixty" were enjoined to attend militia training. This militia
service was scattered and New England soon followed the Virginia
lead and began to ban Blacks from militia organizations.
- Because this gave the Blacks the "social status" on a par
with ministers and public officials, who were also exempted, many
colonial legislatures required free Blacks to work on public
projects for a like amount of days as White settlers gave to the
militia, and slaves were commonly used as laborers.
- Free Blacks were for the most part allowed to enlist as
soldiers in the militia.
- In the southern colonies greater restrictions were placed on
the Blacks, but in time of emergency Blacks were permitted, and
sometimes required, to serve in military units. In New York they
fought in the Tuscarora War in 1711 and the Yamassee War in 1715,
and in Louisiana in 1730 they fought the Natchez Indians for the
French.
- In 1736, a Spanish force was assembled in Mobile to again
fight the Natchez. Accompanying them was a separate company of
Blacks with free Blacks serving as officers. This represents the
first occasion Blacks served as officers in a colonial military
unit.
- During the French and Indian War, Black militia men served
with independent colonist units from some of the states and as
scouts, wagoneers, and laborers with regular English forces.
During this period Black Americans had won honors in several
battles and "Negro Mountain" in Maryland was so named in honor of
a Black man killed in a fight with Indians during this War.
- By the end of this period the Black population in the
colonies had grown to 462,000, and the fear of revolts caused the
Blacks to be exempted from military duty, except in times of
emergency.
Revolutionary War
- Crispus Attucks, a Black man who was the first of five to
die in the Boston Massacre of 1770, is said to be one of the
first martyrs to American independence. Eyewitness reports
credit Attucks with shaping and dominating the action, and when
the people faltered, he is said to have been the one who rallied
them and encouraged them to stand their ground. (21:25)
- Black Minutemen fought at Lexington and Concord as early as
April 1775, but in May of that same year, the Committee for
safety of the Massachusetts Legislature presented a resolution
that read:
Resolved that it is the opinion of this Committee, as the
contest now between Great Britain and the Colonies respects
the liberties and privileges of the latter, which the
Colonies are determined to maintain, that the admission of
any persons, as soldiers, into the army now raising, but
only such as are freemen, will be inconsistent with the
principles that are to be supported, and reflect dishonor on
the colony, and that no slaves be admitted into this army,
upon any consideration whatever. (21:26)
- The British forces began offering freedom to Black slaves in
return for their joining His Majesty's Troops, and by December
1775 almost 300 Blacks were members of Lord Dunmore's "Ethiopian
Regiment." Their uniforms were inscribed "Liberty to Slaves."
(21:25-26)
- That same month George Washington authorized recruiting
officers to sign up free Blacks, but still prohibited slave
participation. (21:27)
-- Some slaves did participate as "substitutes" for their
masters. (21:27)
-- By mid-1778, an average of 42 Black soldiers was in
each integrated brigade, and later all-Black units were formed in
Rhode Island, Boston, and Connecticut. One of these units,
relatively untrained, fought the battle of Rhode Island on
Aquidneck Island in August 1778. It held the line for four hours
against British-Hessian assaults, enabling the entire American
Army to escape a trap. A monument to their courage was erected
in Portsmouth, Rhode Island. (21:28)
-- By 1779, the issue of enlisting Black soldiers had been
resolved. With his troop strength dangerously low, George
Washington welcomed all Blacks, free or slave, into the ranks.
(21:28)
- In a Colonial Army of 300,000, approximately 5,000 Black
soldiers fought in most of the major battles, accumulating honors
and praise from commanders.
- The Continental Navy was small and ships suffered chronic
manpower shortages. Although no ship captains were Black, many
pilots were Black, and no state passed legislation barring Blacks
from naval service. In fact, several states paid bonuses or
granted freedom to known slaves for Black crew members.
- In 1775, in the seaport city of Newport, Rhode Island, a
recruiting poster was displayed seeking "ye able backed sailors,
men white or black, to volunteer for naval service in ye interest
of freedom."
- Despite heroic efforts by Black Americans in the
Revolutionary War, their contributions were soon forgotten and
none were given much recognition or declared to be national
heroes. At the end of the American Revolution, Blacks were
virtually eliminated from the armed forces of the new nation.
- In 1792, an act was passed by Congress restricting military
service to "free able-bodied white male citizens," and most
states followed suit.
- When the Marine Corps was established in 1798 the rules
stated that "no Negro, mulatto or Indian" was to be enlisted.
(21:29)
- Lewis and Clark brought a slave named York with them on
their 1804-5 expedition of the Louisiana Territory. The Plains
Indians had never seen a Black before and they were fascinated
with the color of his skin. After successful raids or battles,
they had marked their skins with charcoal to symbolize bravery.
So, as his skin was as black as if he were marked with charcoal,
he was seen as a very brave man. The Indians considered him,
rather than Lewis and Clark, to be the leader of the expedition,
and, thanks to York, many tribes were friendly to the expedition.
Post-Revolutionary War
- Although Blacks were still excluded from most land forces
during the War of 1812, this was primarily a naval war and
experienced Blacks proved to be a valued and sought-after
resource. When Commodore Perry won his great victory on Lake
Erie, at least one of every ten sailors on his ship was Black.
(21:30)
- Before and during the War of 1812, Black slaves from
southern states escaped and fled to a haven with the Seminole
Indians in Florida. (21:33)
- England and Spain refused to return these slaves to their
owners. The First Seminole War began as an attempt to recapture
runaway slaves. (21:33)
- The Second Seminole War resulted from attempts to remove the
Seminole from Florida to make room for White settlers.
- However, one-quarter to one-third of the warriors resisting
this removal were Black. This Black presence among the Seminole
is believed to be the principal reason that removal of the
Seminoles was sought, as they were attracting the Black slaves
from the southern states.
- The Seminoles were "allowed" to move to Indian Territory,
but only a few Blacks were permitted to go. Some escaped to
Mexico, others were returned to their former White owners.
Civil War
- Historians have argued the root causes of the Civil War for
over a hundred years. Clearly, the abolition of slavery and
freedom for all Blacks was one of the major reasons that war
broke out. Upon taking office, in order to avoid a break-up of
the Union, President Lincoln announced in his inaugural address
that he had no intention or legal right to interfere with the
"institution" of slavery in those states "where it now exists."
(21:35)
- In 1861, Secretary of War Cameron declared that, "This
Department has no intention at present to call into the service
of the Government any colored soldiers."
- However, General John C. Fremont issued a proclamation of
emancipation in Missouri in 1861, and in Georgia, Kansas, and
Ohio, Blacks were accepted into certain volunteer units. These
orders were all countermanded or negated by the Federal officials
in Washington. (21:36)
- By mid-1862 the supply of volunteers slowed down and
Congress revoked the laws against Blacks in the militia or Blacks
as laborers. Finally, in August, Secretary of War Stanton
approved Black recruitment. (21:36)
- Furthermore, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 22
September 1862 authorized participation of Blacks in "the armed
services of the United States to garrison forts, positions,
stations, and other places to man vessels of all sorts in said
service." (21:37)
- In May 1863, the War Department created the Bureau of
Colored Troops to handle recruitment. The United States Colored
Troops (USCT) were created at this time, but all officers were
still to be White. (21:38)
- Black soldiers were paid considerably less than White
soldiers, until January 1864, when equal pay was achieved.
(21:38)
- Over 180,000 Blacks served in USCT units--10 percent of the
total Union strength. Another 200,000 Blacks served in service
units. Fewer than 100 served as officers. (21:38-39)
- Thirteen Black Non-Commissioned Officers received Medals of
Honor for action at Chapins Farm, Virginia, where they assumed
command of their units and led assaults after their White
officers had been killed or wounded. (21:39)
- Of the 1,523 Medals of Honor awarded during the Civil War,
twenty-three were awarded to Black soldiers and sailors. (21:39)
- The Navy enlisted Blacks beginning in September 1861. By
1862, regular seaman ranks were opened to Blacks. By the war's
end 30,000 Blacks had served in the Navy, out of a total Naval
enlisted strength of 118,000.
- By 1865, over 37,000 Black soldiers had died--almost 35
percent of all Blacks who had served in combat. (21:39)
Indian Campaigns
- After the Civil War the USCT were moved to western posts to
relieve tensions created by the presence of armed Black soldiers
in the South. (21:41)
- During the Indian Campaigns (1866-1890) the Black regiments
in the West, despite poor equipment and inadequate rations, had a
high morale and fewer desertions than any other Army unit.
(21:42)
- The poorly equipped Black cavalrymen supplemented their
rations by hunting buffalo. Called "Buffalo Soldiers" by the
Indians, the Black soldiers earned 18 of 370 Medals of Honor
during this period. (21:42)
- An officer who served many years with the all-Black 10th
Cavalry noted that although the Black soldiers did all the
fighting at the Cheyenne Agency during the Indian Campaigns, and
sustained all the casualties, the White troops received all the
commendations. The role of the Black soldier was summed up with
one brusque statement: "Two colored troops of the 10th Cavalry
were also engaged."
- In 1877, Chaplain George M. Mullins, of the all-Black 25th
Infantry, wrote from Fort Davis, Texas, that "The ambition to be
all that soldiers should be is not confined to a few of these
sons of an unfortunate race. They are possessed of the notion
that the colored people of the whole country are more or less
affected by their conduct in the Army."
- In 1877, the first Black officer in the Regular Army, Henry
Ossian Flipper, graduated from the U.S. Military Academy at West
Point. He successfully served in the Black regiments in the West
for four years, but came under attack by his fellow officers and
was discharged in 1881 for conduct unbecoming an officer. The
charge of "embezzling public funds" was never proven. In 1976, at
the request of Wesley A. Brown, the first Black graduate of the
United States Naval Academy, and historian Ron O. McCall, the
Army reviewed the charges against Lieutenant Flipper and issued
an Honorable Discharge in his name. (21:42-43)
- In summarizing the effectiveness of the Black units during
the Civil War, General W. T. Sherman wrote to the Secretary of
War, J. D. Cameron on 1 March 1877:
...I have watched with deep interest the experiment of using
black [sic] as a soldier made in the Army since the Civil
War... General Butler misconstrues me as opposed to blacks
as soldiers for I claim them equality in the ranks as in
civil life... I advised the word "black" be obliterated from
the statute book and that Whites and blacks be enlisted and
distributed alike in the army.
General Sherman's recommendation on integration of the armed
forces would not take effect until 1954. (21:43)
Spanish-American War
- When the battleship Maine sank in Havana Harbor in February
1898, there were 22 Black sailors who died with the rest of the
crew. (21:45)
- Up to the time of the outbreak of the war with Spain, only
one company of Black soldiers served at a post east of the
Mississippi River. During this short war, Blacks served with
distinction, particularly under the command of Colonel "Teddy"
Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders." Overall, Blacks received six
of fifty-two Medals of Honor during the Spanish-American War.
(21:46-47)
World War I
- Approximately 10 percent of the 400,000 Blacks who served in
World War I were assigned to combat units. (21:52)
- Over 1300 were commissioned as officers (less than 1 percent
of all officers). World War I saw the largest number of
commissioned Blacks in the Army since Blacks were admitted.
- One Black soldier, Sergeant Henry Johnson of the 369th
Regiment, was the first American of the war to receive the French
Croix de Guerre. (21:52)
- One Black American, Eugene Jacques Bullard, served as an
aviator in the French Foreign Legion. Fleeing racial persecution
in the United States, he joined the Legion in 1911. Wounded
twice and declared disabled, he somehow engineered a transfer
into the French Air Service and became a highly decorated combat
pilot. Having flown more than 20 combat missions, he was known
as the "Black Swallow of Death," and his plane was marked with a
heart pierced by an arrow with the motto: "All Blood Runs Red."
Despite his record, Bullard was never allowed to fly for the
United States even after the country entered the war in 1917.
(8:18)
- Until 1991, of the 127 Medals of Honor awarded during World
War I, none were awarded to Blacks. This changed on April 24,
1991 when President Bush posthumously awarded the 128th Medal of
Honor to Corporal Freddie Stowers, a Black soldier killed while
leading his company in an assault against a German-held hill in
France on September 28, 1918. The review of Stowers' war record
by the Office of the Secretary of Defense was a result of an
inquiry launched by Hofstra University historian Leroy Ramsey in
1988. (4:A14)
World War II
- On October 25, 1940, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., became the
first Black American to achieve the rank of Brigadier General in
the regular Armed Forces. (21:156)
- During the Battle of Pearl Harbor, Dorie Miller, a messman
aboard the USS West Virginia, manned a free gun on the USS
Arizona and shot down six Zeros, for which he was awarded the
Navy Cross. Miller died with 644 other shipmates on Thanksgiving
Day 1943 when his ship was torpedoed and sunk by a Japanese
submarine. The Navy later named a destroyer escort in his honor.
Recently, there has been discussion in DOD circles as to whether
Miller's Navy Cross should be upgraded to a Medal of Honor. To
date no Black soldier, sailor or airman has been awarded the
Medal of Honor for action in World War II. (21:61-62)
- After World War I the Navy prohibited Blacks from enlisting.
In 1932, enlistment was permitted, but only in the messman's
branch, which was predominantly Filipino. Finally in 1942 the
Navy decided to accept volunteers for general service, but even
then they were prohibited from going to sea. (21:113-114)
- On October 27, 1944, Steward's Mate Alonzo Swann shot down a
Japanese "Kamikaze" on a collision course with Swann's ship, the
carrier Intrepid. A wing of the aircraft hit the gun tub where
Swann was stationed, killing nine of his shipmates. The
commanding officer recommended all seven survivors, all
minorities, for the Navy Cross. The men were eventually awarded
the Bronze Star, seven levels lower than the Navy Cross, with no
explanation from Washington. Part of the problem may have been
Swann's rating as steward's mate or "messboy." Although he had
never cooked a meal, he was so listed as such on the ship's
sailing list even though he had been trained as a gunner. Swann
launched a personally-funded legal battle to upgrade his award.
Finally, 48 years after his heroic action, he received the Navy
Cross. (3:16)
- Black soldiers saw little combat in World War II. There
were notable exceptions, however, and the 761st Tank Battalion
won the Presidential Unit Citation for its efforts in the
European Theater of Operations. Although this all-Black unit was
nominated for this award six times between 1945 and 1976, the
award was not presented until 1978. (21:95-98)
- In 1943, a submarine chaser (PC 1264) and a destroyer escort
(USS Mason) were staffed with predominantly Black crews.
(21:114)
-- Initially all officers and petty officers were White,
but on the submarine chaser the petty officers were replaced with
Blacks about six months after commissioning. (21:114)
-- In 1945, the first Black officer in the Navy was
assigned to the submarine chaser. (21:114)
-- One officer on this ship, Ensign Samuel L. Gravely,
Jr., eventually became the first Black flag officer in the Navy.
(21:114)
- In 1939, Congress enacted the Civilian Pilot Training Act to
create a reserve of trained pilots to be called in case of war.
Civilian schools were called upon to do this training, and there
was a requirement that at least one of the schools train Black
aviators. (21:91)
-- In early 1941, the Tuskegee Training Program was begun
at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. A total of nearly 1,000
"Tuskegee Airmen" were trained through this program, and Tuskegee
Institute was the single training facility for Black pilots until
the flying program closed there in 1946. (21:91-94)
-- At the same time, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was formed
as part of the Tuskegee Training Program. Later redesignated the
99th Fighter Squadron, this flying unit, made up exclusively of
Black pilots, participated in campaigns throughout Europe and
earned three Distinguished Unit Citations. They were noted for
destroying five enemy aircraft in less than four minutes, a feat
that had never before been accomplished. (21:91-92)
-- Another all-Black Army Air Corps flying unit, the 332nd
Fighter Group, first saw combat in early 1944. One of their
noteworthy achievements was the destruction of a German Navy
destroyer by fighter aircraft, which had never been done before.
This unit was placed under the command of then LtCol Benjamin O.
Davis, Jr., who was the first Black graduate of the U.S. Military
Academy to become a general officer in the Regular Army (he
retired at the rank of Lieutenant General). (13:46-50)
-- In all, the Tuskegee Airmen destroyed 261 aircraft,
damaged 148 more. They flew 15,533 sorties and 1,578 missions,
with 66 of their members killed in action between 1941 and 1945.
(21:91-93)
- Some Blacks received the Silver Star and other combat
decorations, but there were no Black recipients of the 431 Medals
of Honor. (21:65)
Post World War II
- Executive Order 9981 was issued by President Harry S Truman
on July 26, 1948, establishing a policy of equality of treatment
and opportunity for all persons in the Armed Forces without
regard to race, color, religion, or national origin. (21:73)
-- Also established was a Presidential Committee, chaired
by Charles Fahy, which examined racial policies to determine
whether Blacks were militarily and technically qualified to hold
all military occupations, and whether segregated units should be
maintained. The Committee concluded that full utilization of
Blacks would improve military efficiency and that segregated
units were an inefficient use of Black resources. (21:73)
- In June of 1949, Wesley A. Brown was the first Black
graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy. (21:20)
Korean War
- Full implementation of Truman's integration policy was
slowed by the Korean Conflict, which began in 1950. (21:75-76)
-- Blacks constituted 13 percent of all U.S. forces during
the Korean War years, and 40 percent of them were assigned to
combat units.
-- Two Black Army sergeants, Cornelius H. Charlton and
William Thompson, were among the 131 Medal of Honor recipients.
(21:76-77)
-- Ensign Jesse L. Brown, the first Black naval aviator,
was killed in a combat mission in December 1950 and was awarded
the Distinguished Flying Cross and Air Medal posthumously. At
about the same time, Frederick C. Branch became the first Black
to be commissioned in the U.S. Marine Corps. (21:77)
- "Project Clear," a study on the effects of segregation and
integration in the Army both in Korea and the United States, was
conducted by the Operations Research Office of Johns Hopkins
University and released in 1954.
-- It concluded that racially segregated units limited
overall Army effectiveness, while integration enhanced
effectiveness; integration throughout the Army was feasible; and
that the quota on Black participation was unnecessary. This
study assisted with desegregation and by 1954 the last all-Black
unit had been disbanded, while Black enlistments grew.
The Vietnam Era
- In June 1961, the first DoD directive was issued that was
designed to eliminate off-post discrimination, and by 1963 post
commanders were made responsible for developing equal treatment
in both off-base and on-base situations. Full implementation of
this policy was hampered by the war in Vietnam. (21:83-86)
- During the Vietnam era there was a disproportionate number
of Blacks entering the military. (21:83-86)
-- They were underrepresented on the local draft boards
and often were unable to receive deferments. (21:84)
-- Consequently, Blacks constituted 16 percent of all
those drafted, compared to 11 percent of the total national
population. (21:86)
-- Blacks tended to stay in the military longer than
Whites and to volunteer at higher rates for elite units, such as
airborne or air cavalry units. (21:85)
-- As a result, Blacks assumed a higher proportion of the
casualties than might be expected. (21:86)
-- There were 20 Blacks among the 237 Medal of Honor
winners in the Vietnam era. (21:86)
-- U.S. Air Force General Daniel "Chappie" James, a
Tuskegee Airman, flew 78 combat missions into North Vietnam. In
September 1975 he became the first Black promoted to the four-
star grade. (21:159-161)
Post-Vietnam Era
- With the end of the Vietnam War in 1973 came the advent of
the all volunteer force. Other changes included a drastic
increase in pay and a policy of equal pay for equal work.
Enlistments soared. Whereas Black membership in the Army of 1968
was 12 percent, it rose to 32 percent in 1979. (21:87)
- Equanimity in the all volunteer force manifested itself at a
slow, yet certain pace. In 1964, Black officers made up only 3.3
percent of the force. By 1979, this number had risen to only 6.8
percent. (See Table 1) With Blacks making up 32 percent of the
enlisted ranks, there was an apparent discontinuity in officer
representation. Blacks were still occupying the majority of the
lower pay grades and positions of responsibility. (21:88)
The Role of Blacks During Operation Desert Storm
- Civil rights leaders claimed that the disproportionate
numbers of Black troops in the armed forces at the time of the
Persian Gulf war would lead to high percentages of Black
casualties. The Department of Defense has released figures on
the percentage of participation of various ethnic groups and the
percentage of casualties each group suffered. Blacks, who make
up 12 percent of the U.S. population, made up 24.5 percent of
military personnel deployed to the Gulf. Black personnel of all
branches who died in combat or non-combat situations represented
15 percent (182) of the total casualties in the war. Whites, who
made up 66 percent of the U.S. forces in the theater accounted
for 78 percent of the deaths. Hispanics, who were 5 percent of
the forces, accounted for 4 percent of the deaths, and Asian-
Americans, less than two percent of the force, made up less than
one percent of the deaths. (6)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. "Black Landslide to Capitol Hill." Ebony (January 1993), p. 25.
2. Black People and the 1980 Census, The Illinois Council for
Black Studies. Chicago, 1979.
3. "Black WWII hero finally recognized." The Navy Times.
February 8, 1993, p. 16.
4. "Bush Awarding Medal of Honor to WWI Black." The Washington
Post. April 6, 1991, p. A14.
5. Cloyd, Iris (ed). Who's Who Among Black Americans, 6th ed.
Detroit: Gale Research Inc., 1991.
6. Duke, Lynn. "Fewer blacks than expected died in war,
Pentagon figures show." Philadelphia Enquirer. March 22,
1991, p. 15A.
7. "50 Events That Changed Black America." Ebony (November
1992), pp. 168-174.
8. "First Black Combat Pilot Honored in D.C." Jet (December
1992), p. 18.
9. Franklin, John H., and August Meier (ed). Black Leaders of
the Twentieth Century, Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 1982.
10. Johnson, Otto (ed). The 1993 Information Please Almanac
1993, 46th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993.
11. Lowery, Charles D., and John F. Marszalek (ed). Encyclopedia
of African American Civil Rights. New York: Greenwood
Press, 1992.
12. Office of Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Equal
Opportunity and Safety Policy. Black-Americans in Defense
of Our Nation. Washington DC: Department of Defense, 1985.
13. Osur, Alan M. Blacks in the Army Air Forces During World
War II. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1977.
14. Rush, Theressa Gunnels, Carol Fairbanks Myers, Esther Spring
Aratta. Black American Writers, Past and Present: A
Biographical and Bibliographical Dictionary. New Jersey:
The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1975.
15. Spradling, Mary Mace (ed). In Black and White, 3rd ed.
Michigan: Gale Research Company, 1980.
16. Tidwell, Billy J (ed). The State of Black America 1992,
17th ed. New York: National Urban League, 1992.
17. U.S. Bureau of the Census. America's Black Population: A
Statistical View, 1970-1982. PIO/POP-83-1, Washington DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983.
18. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Population Profile of the United
States, 1984-1985. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1987.
19. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the
United States, 1987, 107th ed. Washington DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1987.
20. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the
United States, 1991, 111th ed. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1991.
21. U.S. Superintendent of Documents. A Pictorial Documentary of
the Black American Male and Female Participation and
Involvement in the Military Affairs of the United States of America.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991.
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